Promoting Gender Equality Essay

For centuries women were not treated equal to men in many ways. They were not allowed to own property, they did not have a Share in the property of their parents, they had no voting rights, they had no freedom to choose their work or job and so on. Now that we have come out of those dark days of oppression of women there is a need for strong movement to fight for the rights of women and to ensure that they get all the rights which men have or in other words a movement for the Empowerment of Women. The present seminar has been planned with a view to discuss the various issues related to the Empowerment of Women and to suggest measures for achieving this end.The body of research on women‘s empowerment has conceptualized and defined this construct in many ways and used different terms, often interchangeably, including ―autonomy,â€â€"―status,â€â€" and ―agencyâ€â€" (Lee-Rife and Edmeades 2011; Malhotra et al. 2002; Upadhyay and Hindin 2005). see more:examples of gender equality A review of the literature also shows different measures for the same conceptualization. For example, studies often measure women‘s autonomy with an index that assesses their participation in decision-making in various household issues. This index represents women‘s degree of control over their environment. Some researchers include both major and minordecisions, while others include only major decisions, excluding day-to-day household decisions and those that are traditionally within the woman‘s domain. Women‘s empowerment encompasses many dimensions, including economic, socio-cultural, familial/interpersonal, legal, political, and psychological (Malhotra et al. 2002), which contributes to the wide variation in conceptualizations of women‘s empowerment. Given this variation in conceptualization, it is difficult to measure women‘s empowerment consistently. Kabeer (2001), whose definition is widely accepted, defines empowerment as ―the expansi on of people‘s ability to make strategic life choices in a context where this ability was previously denied to them. Two central components of empowerment are agency and resources needed to exercise life choices (Kabeer 2001; Malhotra et al. 2002). Even with a clear definition, these constructs are difficult to quantify in a standardized way.Additionally, to measure empowerment at an individual level, researchers must translate the amorphous constructs into a set of specific questions that population-based surveys can ask of individual respondents (Kishor and Subaiya 2008). Another challenge is the variation in cultural contexts that affect the measurement of women‘s empowerment. It is desirable to use standardized questions that enable cross-cultural comparisons of empowerment. Yet a measure that captures empowerment in one context may have limited relevance in another, as is the case with measures that assess mobility in a community where women‘s free movement is the norm. While many existing measures of empowerment were originally conceptualized and developed for the context of Asia, and for South Asian countries in particular (Dyson and Moore 1983; Mason 1987), measures that are universally applicable regardless of the gender equity environment, such as those used in Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS), are most useful for cross-national comparisons. Using the available standardized measures of women‘s empowerment among several population-based samples from sub-Saharan Africa will allow us to make comparisons and better understand whether the available measures adequately capture empowerment in these settings. It is still unknown whether the same dimensions of empowerment that were developed elsewhere are relevant in sub-Saharan Africa, where the gender environment is completely different than in other regions. In Africa, empowerment is likely to look different than elsewhere because of such differences as more working women who have control over their earnings, more polygamy, more nuclear families (as opposed to extended families), and larger ideal family size, and because women‘s status is often tied to their fertility. EMPOWERMENT AND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH A broad body of research exists on women‘s empowerment and reproductive outcomes. Substantial research, primarily focused on Asia, demonstrates that women‘s empowerment is associated with contraceptive use (Gwako 1997; Morgan and Niraula 1995; Schuler et al. 1997; Woldemicael 2009), lower fertility (Balk 1994; Dyson and Moore 1983; Hindin 2000), and longer birth intervals (Upadhyay and Hindin 2005). Some researchers have suggested that women‘s empowerment is a key pathway through which education influences fertility (Jejeebhoy 1995; Mason 1987). To operationalize women‘s empowerment, much of the research literature uses the previously mentioned index of participation in house holddecision-making. The standard DHS questionnaire includes a set of questions about household decision-making. Other approaches include assessing women‘s acceptance of reasons that a husband is justified for beating his wife, and also reasons that a wife is justified in refusing sex with her husband (Ethiopian Society of Population Studies 2008). The DHS includes questions about these issues. Such gender-role attitudes measure the extent of women‘s acceptance of norms that justify men‘s control over women. As expected, they are associated with lower levels of power over household decision-making among women (Dhaher et al. 2010; Hindin 2003; Linos et al. 2010). MAJOR OBSTACLES TO THE PROMOTION OF GENDER EQUALITY AND EMPOWERMENT Notwithstanding the widespread commitment shown through the ratification of international and regional gender equality frameworks, normative gains are not yet fully reflected in substantial changes in women’s lives, as shown in the preceding section. Large gaps remain between policy and practice and it is the aim of this section to discuss some of the major challenges that have been experienced. Continued presence of strong cultural and traditional practices constraining progress in achieving gender parity The continued presence of long standing cultural and traditional practices that discriminate against women and girls’ have constrained the progress towards achieving gender equality. Discriminatory practices and public attitudes towards the advancement of women and gender equality have not changed at the same pace as policy, legal and institutional frameworks. Lack of ratification of the instruments that promote gender equality Previous sections have identified the status with respect to a number of regional instruments, particularly the African Women’s Protocol. Some countries are yet to sign this instrument, while a considerable number are yet to ratify it. Ineffective institutional and policy implementation mechanisms Thirteen years after the adoption of the BPFA by the Fourth World Conference on Women in 1995, the greatest challenge facing countries and regional institutions is the effective implementation of the adopted commitments. Good policies that do not have well formulated implementation plans and resources render the policies ineffective. In some countries, the capacity of gender machineries has also contributed to the slow pace. Some policies are not effectively implemented because they were not developed in a participatory way inclusive of both men and women. Lack of targets with well defined time-frames are also some of the factors that have hampered effective implementation of policies. Lack of monitoring and evaluation mechanisms also plays a significant role in the lack of implementation. Moreover, some policies tend to focus on the symptoms rather than addressing the persistent underlying causes of gender inequality. African women, especially those living in rural communities and those with disabilities, still face exclusion from participating in development processes that can empower them and improve gender equality. It is crucial to undertake inclusive participatory approaches in policy development that involve women as equal partners. Lack of adequate resources Lack of human and financial resources severely limits gender mainstreaming to achieve gender equality and women’s empowerment. Even in situations where a comprehensive plan of action for gender mainstreaming has been developed, countries may not have adequate resources to implement the plan. In particular National Gender Machineries (NGMs) experience limited financial and other material resource base to enhance the implementation of gender equality mandates, roles and responsibilities. In addition, there are gaps in human capacity, there is generally a challenge with respect to gender competence skills of officers in the NGMs to influence the engendering of macro-economic and sector policy frameworks. There is high staff turn over of experts, and low staff retention, most countries are facing difficulties of retaining and sustaining staff with the necessary expertise. Continued presence of strong cultural and traditional practices constraining progress in achieving gender parity in education In taking decisions with respect to the education of their children, some families continue to have preference for educating boys rather than girls. As noted female-to-male school enrolment, retention and completion favor boys in a majority of countries. Very few countries have female to male enrolment rates that favor girls over boys and these countries have been making progress to redress the situation. Continued presence of strong cultural and traditional practices constraining progress in achieving gender parity in health Some cultural and traditional practices continue to inhibit progress in the area of sexual and reproductive rights. Women and girls continue to risk death from maternal mortality. There is need to provide accessible sexual and reproductive healthcare services and education to reduce maternal mortality. Such interventions need to address the roles of both men and women. The rate of HIV infection is much higher among women than men and in this regard, governments must establish and monitor strict legal frameworks to address the vulnerability of women and girls. Furthermore, access to anti-retroviral treatment should be ensured. Lack of enforcement of laws that promote gender equality and lack of knowledge of laws In some countries laws that promote gender equality are in place, however lack of enforcement of such laws leads to the perpetuation of gender inequalities and violence against women. In some countries, laws are in place, but interpretation of these laws is lacking and as such, they are not enforced. Lack of full involvement of men and boys Changing cultural and traditional beliefs including patriarchy requires the involvement of men, and boys in the promotion of gender equality through innovative rights-based, culturally sensitive programmes and continued education and sensitization. Continued lack of recognition of women’s unpaid work The continued lack of recognition of unpaid work (domestic, reproductive, care and support) performed by women hampers the development of policies that can effectively promote gender equality. There is therefore need for such work to be given due recognition in the computation of national income. Limited role of the media The media can play a major role in promoting gender equality beyond what it is currently doing. In particular in creating awareness, sensitization and education campaigns to change patriarchal attitudes. As noted before establishing new laws alone is not enough; existing gendered social relations and cultural norms may quickly shape these laws. There is need for measures to counter preexisting social forces through education and training of both men and women. The media can make a major contribution towards promoting these gender equality messages. Lack of sex disaggregated and gender responsive data Sex-disaggregated data and information from gender-sensitive indicators are often not collected, lost in aggregation of published data, or not used. Gender responsive data would help in tracking the progress made towards achievement of gender equality. SUGGESTED RECOMMENDATIONS Translation of commitments and policies promoting gender equality and women’s empowerment into action on the ground remains a major challenge in Africa. Based on the findings of this study, this section highlights some recommendations that can help countries successfully implement the commitments and policies aimed at promoting gender equality and women’s empowerment. Improved research and collection of gender responsive statistical data It is important to systematically collect accurate sex and gender disaggregated data and conduct research that is essential for monitoring and evaluating progress towards achievement of gender equality and women’s empowerment. More efforts are needed to build capacity of national experts to collect gender disaggregated data in order to enhance integration of gender perspectives in the development process. Strengthen documentation and dissemination of information on promoting gender equality and women’s empowerment Sharing of information is important within countries, between countries and internationally and is critical to the success of achieving gender equality and women’s empowerment. There is need to intensify documentation of experiences with successful and unsuccessful practices and widely disseminate this information. It is important for member States, development partners and international and regional bodies to identify information exchange systems that can facilitate wide exchange of this information in the region. CONCLUSION The Empowerment of women has become one of the most important Concerns of 21st century not only at national level but also at the international level. Efforts by the Govt. are on to ensure Gender equality but Government initiatives alone would not be sufficient to achieve this goal. Society must take initiative to create a climate in which there is no gender discrimination and Women have full opportunities of Self decision making and participating in the Social, Political and Economic life of the Country with a sense of equality. As countries around the world work to promote gender equality and empower women as part of achieving the Millennium Development Goals, it can be expected that demand for smaller families will follow. Additionally, family planning programs can address women‘s empowerment as part of their mission to help women and couples have only the number of children they want. Such programs are likely to generate interest in family planning services, create demand for smaller families, and also reduce unwanted fertility. REFRENCES _Abadian, S. 1996. Women’s Autonomy and Its Impact on Fertility. World Development 24(12):1793-1809. _Gwako, E.L. 1997. Conjugal Power in Rural Kenya Families: Its Influence on Women’s _Decisions about Family Size and Family Planning Practices. Sex Roles 36(3-4):127-147. _Jejeebhoy, S.J. 1995.Women’s Education, Autonomy, and Reproductive Behaviour: Experience _from Developing Countries. Oxford, England: Clarendon Press. _Jejeebhoy, S.J. 2000. Women’s Autonomy in Rural India: Its Dimensions, Determinants, and the Influence of Context. Pp. 204-238 in Women’s empowerment and demographic processes: moving beyond Cairo, edited by H. Presser and G. Sen. London: Oxford University Press. _ Lee-Rife, S.M. 2011. Women’s Empowerment and Reproductive Experiences over the Lifecourse. Soc Sci Med 71(3):634-642. _Linos, N., M. Khawaja, and M. Al-Nsour. 2010. Women’s Autonomy and Support for Wife Beating: Findings from a Population-Based Survey in Jordan. Violence Vict 25(3):409-419. _ Mason, K.O. 1987. The Impact of Women‘s Social Position on Fertility in Developing Countries. Sociological Forum 4:718–745. _Morgan, P.S. and B.B. Niraula. 1995. Gender Inequality and Fertility in Two Nepali Villages. Population and Development Review 21(3):541-561. _Westoff, C. and A. Bankole. Reproductive Preferences in Developing Countries at the Turn of the Century. Calverton, Maryland: ORC Macro. DHS Comparative Reports No. 2. April 2002. http://www.measuredhs.com/pubs/pub_details.cfm?ID=369#dfiles . _Malhotra, A., S.R. Schuler, and C. Boender. Measuring Women’s Empowerment as a Variable in International Development. Washington, DC; June 28, 2002. http://hdr.undp.org/docs /network/hdr_net/GDI_GEM_Measuring_Womens_Empowerment.pdf . _ Gebreselassie, T. 2008. Spousal Agreement on Reproductive Preferences in Sub-Saharan Africa. Calverton, Maryland: Macro International Inc. DHS Analytical Studies No. 10. http://www.measuredhs.com/pubs/pdf/AS10/AS10.pdf _ UNECA, (2004b), Seventh African Regional Conference on Women (Beijing +10) Decade Review of the Implementation of the Dakar and Beijing Platforms of Action: Outcome and Way forward, Addis Ababa. _UNECA-SA, (2003), Land Tenure Systems and Sustainable Development in Southern Africa, Lusaka. _ WHO, (2002) Gender and Reproductive Rights Glossary. Geneva . _ World Bank, (2000), Can Africa Claim the 21st Century?, The World Bank, Washington DC. _Budlender D, J. 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H., (2000), Towards realistic strategies for women’s political empowerment in Africa, Gender and Development, Vol. 8, No. 3, pp. 24-30. _ OECD and NEPAD, (2007), Gender and Economic Empowerment in Africa Outcome of the meeting of the 8th Africa Partnership Forum Berlin, Germany 22-23 May 2007. _Oxfam, 2004, Mozambique’s Family Law passes, http://www.oxfam.org/en/programs/development/ safrica/moz_law.htm _ Reeves H and S Baden, (2000), Gender and Development: Concepts and Definitions, Report prepared for the Department for International Development (DFID) for its gender mainstreaming intranet resource, Institute of Develo pment Studies, BRIDGE report Number 55, Brighton. _ Sen A, (1993) Capability and well-being, in Amartya Sen and Martha Nussbaum (eds.), The quality of life, Oxford, Clarendon Press. _ UNDAW, (2005) Enhancing Participation of Women in Development through an Enabling Environment for Achieving Gender Equality and the Advancement of Women, Aide Memoire held in Bangkok, Thailand, 8 – 11 November 2005. _UNECA and AUC (Forthcoming) Good Practices for Addressing GBV/VAW in Africa, Draft Document, September 2008, Addis Ababa. _ UNECA, (2008a), The Millennium Development Goals in Africa: Progress and Challenges. _ UNECA, (2008b), Millennium Development Goals Monitoring: Challenges and Opportunities for African Countries – E/ECA/STATCOM/1/6, Report prepared for the First Meeting of the Statistical Commission for Africa (STATCOM-AFRICA I) held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 21-24 January 2008. _ UNECA, (2008c), The State of Older People in Africa –2007: Regional review and appra isal of the Madrid International Plan of Action on Ageing, UNECA, Addis Ababa. _ UNECA, (2007a), Accelerating Africa’s Growth and Development to meet the MDGs: Emerging Challenges and the way forward: An Issues Paper for the Conference of African Ministers of Finance, Planning and Economic Development/Fortieth session of the Commission Twenty-sixth Meeting of the Committee of Experts held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 29 March – 1 April 2007. _ UNECA, (2007b), Ministerial statement of the Conference of African Ministers of Finance, Planning and Economic Development/Fortieth session of the Commission Twenty-sixth Meeting of the Committee of Experts held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 29 March – 1 April 2007. _ UNECA, (2007c), Millennium Development Goals Report, Report to the Conference of Ministers of African Ministers responsible for Finance, Planning, and Economic Development held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, April 2007. _ECA (2007d) Land Policy in Africa: A Framework to Strengthen Land Rights, Enhance Productivity and Secure Livelihoods, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. _ UNECA, 2006: Meeting the Challenge of Employment In Africa, An Issues Paper for the Twenty-fifth meeting of the Committee of Experts of the Conference of African Ministers of Finance, Planning and Economic Development Ouagadougou 10 – 13 May 2006. _ UNECA (2005a) Economic Report on Africa 2005 – Meeting the Challenges of Unemployment and Poverty in Africa, Addis Ababa. _UNECA (2005b), Promoting Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment in Africa: Questioning the Achievements and Confro nting the Challenges Ten Years after Beijing, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. _UNECA (2004a). The African Gender and Development Index. (ECA) Addis Ababa.

Racism Definition Essay

Racism is something something we’ve all witnessed. Many people fail to believe that race isn’t a biological category, but an artificial classification of people with no scientifically variable facts. In other words, the distinction we make between races has nothing to do with genetic characteristics. Race was created socially, primarily by how people perceive ideas and faces we are not quite used to. The definition of race all depends on where and when the word is being used. In U.S. history, the meaning of the label â€Å"white† has changed over time, eventually adding groups like the Italians, Irish and Jews. Other groups, mainly African, Latino, American Indian, Pacific Islander, and Asian descendants, have found the path for worldwide social acceptance much more difficult. The irregular border of ethnicities touch educational and economic opportunity, political representation, as well as income, health and social mobility of people of color. So where did this type of behavior begin? There are many ideas thrown around as to how racism began, though the truth lies in the history of mankind. Before people were able to travel and experience difference groups of people, we predominantly stayed in the same kind of area with the same kind of people. We feared things that were different, and were lacked the power to face those kinds of things. All this changed once we did, in fact, obtain this level of human advancement, but the fear never drifted. The truth is, racism began as soon as people faced those of different races. We’ve always the fear of change, not to mention the unknown. It seems that is racism has been around so long we would have been able to overcome it as our species developed, but contact with those of whom we are afraid of often lead to disputes, which, in time, is what caused racism to transform from people simply disliking each other, to the permanent and indestructible foundation of common racism and prejudice. Contemporary racism is said to have been derived from many places, one of the most common ideas being upbringing. As a child, you are reliant on your parents to help you become who you are. Part of that involves their own, distinct opinions, that of which children don’t have the maturity to form on their own. They need the help of their parents, and this is often where the problem starts. If you were told that all Asians were sneaky or all Whites are evil or all Blacks are criminals, you can bet that you are going to feel this way about them. â€Å"Upbringing is the largest cause of racism†-Anonymous. Even if we allow yourself to get to know some of them, this will always be in the back of your mind. Another suggestion as to how racism makes it’s way into our heads is through the almighty media. As we grow up, media becomes a factor of our lives whether or not we want it to be, and is also a major source of how racism keeps itself active. Since the 70’s the media has been giving us racial labels, one of the largest supplies coming from crime shows like â€Å"Law and Order†, and â€Å"CSI†. When dealing with crime, people of color are reflected in the demarcation of â€Å"them† and â€Å"us†. Whites are often represented as the â€Å"good guy†, or the strong, law obeying citizens. They often target people of color, sometimes without any sort of evidence. Directors and writers use racial stereotypes to make a more complex story with more suspects. In the novel, â€Å"The Power of One,† by Bryce Courtney, a young, white, African boy named Peekay lives in a world where the government, the country, and the world revolves around racism. World War II is coming to an end, and in South Africa, the whites seem to hate the blacks just as much as the blacks hate the whites. Peekay was raised by a compassionate and loving black woman he refers to as â€Å"Nanny†, due to the unsafe conditions at home with his bad, mentally ill mother. He grew up with Nanny and his best friend, who was also black. To Peekay, racism didn’t exist. The author, Bryce Courtney, didn’t intend on writing a book fully based on racism in South Africa. He grasps a trace of apartheid by Peekay’s experiences as a white boy by unhurriedly soaking it into South Africa as a toxin. â€Å"Adapt, blend†¦develop a camouflage.† This thought went through Peekay’s mind once he had been exposed to racism, having been forced to attend a boarding school full of bigger, darker students. In Chapters One and Two, as a mere five-year-old, the bright protagonist Peekay is already addressing the necessity of affecting camouflages in order to survive the system. He is often forced to act differently around people of different skin colors in order to fit in better to prevent himself from getting beaten or teased. Peekay faces his first taste of racism the very first night at the boarding school. One boy, known as â€Å"The Judge†, who was much older, stronger, and darker than Peekay, comes up with the nickname â€Å"PissKop† for Peekay, because of Peekay’s habit to wet the bed that was caused by The Judge’s, along with the help of many other older black students, tendency to beat Peekay and spit in his face. The Judge also convinces Peekay that Hitler is determined to march all Englishmen in South Africa into the ocean, and even forces Peekay to eat human feces. Upbringing is a very strong factor of what influences people to become racist, or to have even slight racial views. In Peekay’s case, he had gone from one extreme to another. At home, Nanny and his best friend were the only people he could call family, besides his mother who spent time at what Peekay called â€Å"The Mental Breakdown Place†. When sent to the boarding school, he wasn’t expecting the black students to dislike him because of his skin color. He saw the black kids as merely bullies, and before they started bullying him hadn’t anticipated them to gang up on him because they were black. This is what caused Peekay’s neutrality with the racist society in which he lived. He gave each person a chance to be a good person, because he had seen the good in different ethnicities to which many people were stubborn to open up their minds. The power of one, or the idea of how one person can make a significant difference, is an important idea in relation to challenge in the novel. Giel Piet, one of Peekay’s boxing coaches who had been sneaking tobacco to all of the prisoners, was forced to eat feces by Sergeant Ballman, a white racist who works at the prison. If Giel Piet had refused to eat the feces, the guards would have found the tobacco, resulting in the prisoners getting beaten along with Giel Piet . As Peekay witnessed this happen to his coach, he thought, â€Å"It made me angry. Angry it was done. Angry I couldn’t do anything to stop it.† But how does racism really affect society? Visibly identifiable members of racial and ethnic oppressed groups continue to struggle for equal access and opportunity, particularly during times of stringent economics. Often, the targeted race has a harder time doing things such as finding a well-paying job or house. While there have been some sizeable gains in the labor force status of racial minorities, significant gaps remains. Racism is rampant in all areas of employment. For many members of exploited racial and ethnic unit, there is always an economic depression. Studies show that people of color are the last hired and the first fired. As a result, budget cuts, downsizing, and privatization may disproportionately hurt people of color. In February 1995 the unemployment rate for African Americans was 10.1 percent as compared to 4.7 percent for white Americans (Berry, 1995). The unemployment rate for adolescents of color is approximately four times that of white adolescents. Whatâ€⠄¢s more, In America, the Majority of unemployed men are black, and compared to other races, Blacks and Latinos on average have disproportionately low income. Other than simply getting a job, getting and keeping a house is often a difficult task for those of color. The job of a landlord is to rent out houses to reliable people or families, though a racist landlord could make it difficult for a family of color to find a home. Widespread housing discrimination against Americans of color in U.S. neighborhoods is sometimes referred to as a â€Å"national† problem, something that must be fixed by new government policies. Housing segregation in the United States developed slowly and deliberately. By law, property owners may not refuse to rent or sell housing, make housing unavailable to, set different conditions or privileges for sale or rental of a property, impose different rates and terms on a loan, refuse to make a mortgage loan, or discriminate in appraising property due to a client’s ethnicity, and because racism cannot be seen, these rules are very vague. Available evidence suggests that blacks and Hispanics face higher reje ction rates and less favorable conditions in securing mortgages than do Whites with similar credit characteristics (Ross & Yinger 1999). It has been reported that blacks pay more than 0.5% higher interest rates on home mortgages than whites do and that this difference persists with income level, date of purchase, and age of buyer. During the Great Depression, people of color had a much harder time getting past the financial hardship because of the racial stereotypes that had before been thrown around. In the book, Whitewash Race: The Myth of a Colorblind Society, Michael K. Brown says â€Å"In the late 1930’s, black unemployment rates were two to four times higher than white unemployment rates.† Few Blacks had any financial savings to caution them from the full affect of the Depression. Blacks that had before has troubles getting a well paying job the faced the same challenge with a much larger margin for failure. Mrs. Roosevelt was particularly fretful about the financial difficulties encountered by racism. Roll of Thunder, Hear My Cry, by Mildred D. Taylor, is a story about a black family, the Logans, from the south, living frugally in order to preserve and keep their patch of farmland. Because the story takes place during the end of the Great Depression, one of the worst times in history to be a black farmer, money has become very sparse for the family and for the neighborhood. The children of the family, Cassie, Stacey, Christopher-John, and Little Man, live in a world where white kids rule and they know it. White kids had the freedom to do anything they wished to do, from threatening the kids they thought were inferior to hammering kids who socialized with black kids, or even walked with them to school. This was the case for T.J., a friend of the Logan kids who often walked with Cassie and her brothers to school, more often than not with a price. While walking to school on the first day, Cassie and her brothers are cascaded in red dust as a bus full of white kids skids past, though they eventually get their revenge on the kids by sabotaging the bus. This is significant not only because it shows us just how boorish white kids were to black kids, but it also shows that black kids had to walk to school, and to some black kids, according to Cassie, the walk is so long they are forced to drop out of school. Cassie, being in fourth grade, attends a school especially for black kids. On the first day back to school, she and the other students are staggered to realize that that year they would be having books in the class, something that at that time was a luxury for an all-black school. Though once Cassie sees the books, she quickly sees why the books were given to them. The books were old and dirty, and on the inside of the front cover clenching to stay on was the label â€Å"Nigras.† Infuriated, Cassie refuses to take the bo ok, and is ultimately whipped for her quarrel. It isn’t until a black man is killed by a group of white men without consequence that the Logan kids grasp the idea of how dangerous living in a racist, white community could be. Racism becomes the problem revolving around the Logan family. Cassie doesn’t understand why they are treated differently and doesn’t want to back down because of the color of her skin. Stacey, on the other and, agrees to keep a low profile in the white community as to not trigger any alarms that may cause an issue. This novel does a good job of showing how the effects racism on a specific race simply cause racism itself to stay functioning. After all they endure, at the end of the book the Logan family are a healthier family than they were at the start, mainly because of their capability to see through each other’s skin color, something the rest of the town was unable to do. The disruption of the school bus, though it was simply a small revenge, shows how close the kids had become because of everything they had been through because of the white kids. Racism brings races together, making races seem like a tighter bondage, and ultimately making it easier to target races. Racism had existed throughout human history. It is regularly defined as the detestation, or belief that someone is less than human, because of skin color, place of birth, and mores. All of these arguments are based on a false understanding of race; in fact, some contemporary scientists could argue that the classification of races used today is inadequate, and that there are more meticulous and proper ways of categorizing humans. What may seem to be considerable â€Å"racial† differences to some people, such as skin color, hair, and facial shape, are not of much scientific significance. It has been said that there have been greater biological differences between people of the same race than if we were to compare the same trait to a different race. One philosopher writes: â€Å"There are few genetic characteristics to be found in the population of England that are not found in similar proportions in Zaire or in China†¦.those differences that most deeply affect us in our de alings with each other are not to any significant degree biologically determined.† Often what causes people to act racist is the fact that they have learned to conceal fear with racism. Many individuals react with fear towards those who look or appear different than them. Fear is what makes us uncomfortable, making us need to protect ourselves and defend, mostly causing pain and discomfort to the person or object of the fear. Instead of attempting to fix and deal with the differences, the wall between the two maintains; union and agreement are never attained. So how do we put an end to this? The sad fact of the matter is that, during this age, we won’t. People were born differently, and it’s only human to retaliate negatively to things or people we aren’t used to. Scientists believe there is the tendency in all animals to selectively preserve their own kind even at the cost of a different animal type, which is in essence what caused racism, not to mention prejudice in general. As humankind progresses, our way of thinking becomes more complex, as does the world around us. The values we once had aren’t forgotten, but replaced with new values as our old ways hide in the back of our minds. Though they are present and may re-emerge if a change in life conditions calls them up, they are no longer the dominant. This genuinely is the hope for mankind in their fight to end racism. In the future, if we can surmount the silliness of racism to the point where no one senses it, we will be in fine condition. The most effective way to begin this, through the words of Morgan Freeman, is to â€Å"Stop Talking About It.†

Reasonable Fear of Imminent Danger: Good Social Policy

Reasonable Fear of Imminent Danger: Good Social Policy? BY gotten Reasonable Fear of Imminent Danger: Good Social Policy? Giovanni Mike 4324324 LISTENED 1001 sum 13 Professor James Barney A sobering fact Is that our government has a monopoly on the use of force, but It cannot protect everyone at all times In an Immediate fashion. Joel samara, criminal Law, at 1 55 (1 lath De. 2014). Therefore, citizens are permitted to use proportional force in a â€Å"self-help† fashion as long as 1. The necessity is great 2. The need exists â€Å"right now' 3. The force is used for prevention only. D. At 155. However, preemptive tribes or retaliation are not justifications for force used in self-defense. ‘d, at 155. There are also four elements of self-defense: unprovoked attack, necessity, proportionality, and reasonable belief. ‘d, at 156. The first three were alluded to earlier and are fairly self-explanatory, but reasonable belief will be the primary focus in this discussion . This element requires that a defender must have the â€Å"reasonable† belief that It's necessary to use deadly force to neutralize an Imminent deadly attack. D, at 156. However, what Is â€Å"reasonable fear? † How does It play out In the courtroom? Is the burden on the person using force against an aggressor to show that he or she possessed â€Å"reasonable fear? † Does this requirement change whether a person is at should be look into whether the person using deadly force had a â€Å"reasonable† opportunity to retreat and avoid violence? Should we offer civil immunity to those who used deadly force legitimately? Overall, are the recently more aggressive self- defense laws good for public policy?Do they allow those with â€Å"itchy' trigger fingers to have a virtual license to kill, or do they take an extra necessary step to put the safety f law-abiding citizens ahead of the concerns of violent law-breakers? Newer self- defense laws, such as the one p assed by Florida, unnecessarily presume â€Å"reasonable fear† in defending one's home and fail to adequately consider whether a person using deadly force had a duty to retreat (in public spaces) when violence could have been easily avoided.Citizens should reasonably be expected to show that their deadly use of force was Justified due to their legitimate fear for their safety whether they're at home or in public; they're burden of proof shouldn't be beyond a seasonable doubt since the prosecution could probably cast doubt on this with relative ease since it's based on the subjective measurement of fear. Subtle wording differences in these laws can sway protections to either the aggressor or defender in these situations?it's critical to strike a healthy balance. So how did we get to the self-defense laws used today?According to Joel Samara, Criminal Law, at 164 (1 lath De. 2014), since the thirteenth century English common law required that a person had to prove that he'd â₠¬Å"retreated to the wall† before being Justified in killing another errors. The US began to reject this practice in the nineteenth century and replaced it with a â€Å"no duty to retreat† requirement, which holds that a person can be Justified in killing someone in self-defense. ‘d, at 164. This new approach to the use of force by the common man was thought to be more accommodating to the bravery of a â€Å"true man. † ‘d, at 164.This â€Å"true man† was thought to be someone who would do whatever he had to do to protect his wife, kids, and the nation. ‘d, at 165. Legislators and judges carved out the â€Å"stand your ground† rule from these previously mention values, which states that if a man didn't start the fight they could stand their ground and kill in self-defense without having to retreat from a place they had a legal right to be. ‘d, at 165. Also, the retreat rule was also created that obligates a person to retreat i f they â€Å"reasonably' believe that they're threatened with death or serious harm and they are able to retreat without continuing to be subject to this danger. D, at 165. Furthermore, the â€Å"castle doctrine† was created as an exception to the retreat rule when the context is within someone's home, where they have no duty to retreat as Eng as they reasonably believe there is an imminent threat of death or serious bodily harm. ‘d, at 165. Since 2005, more than forty states have passed or proposed new â€Å"castle doctrine† legislation intended to expand the right to use deadly force in self-defense. ‘d, at 172. Florida was the first state to pass this type of statute, and it continues to be the model for the rest of the states. D, at 172. Their statute states that a person is presumed to have held a reasonable fear of imminent peril of death or great bodily harm if: (a) The person against whom the defensive force was used as in the process of unlawfully and forcefully entering, or had unlawfully and forcibly entered, a dwelling, residence, or occupied vehicle (b) The person who used defensive force knew or had reason to believe that an unlawful and forcible entry or unlawful and forcible act was occurring or had occurred†¦ Old, at 172.Pennsylvania, they have a right to be in (2) they believe that the use of deadly force is immediately necessary to prevent death, serious bodily injury, kidnapping, or rape (3) the aggressor displays or uses a firearm (or replica) or any other deadly weapon. Joshua Light, The Castle Doctrine?The Lobby is my Dwelling, Volvo 22 Widener Law Journal 236 These types of laws do not exist without controversy, since there are those (2012). That claim that they give citizens a virtual â€Å"license to kill. † Supra, at 174.On one side, people like Marion Hammer, president of the National Rifle Association, contend that these new laws are Just protecting a right that has been around since the asses and that we shouldn't have a duty to retreat only to get chased down and beaten to death. ‘d, at 174. Indeed, Florist's intent when they passed their castle-doctrine law n 2005 was that it was â€Å"necessary to restore absolute rights of law abiding people to protect themselves, their families, and others, and their property from intruders and attackers without fear of prosecution or civil action.Wyatt Holiday, The Answer to Criminal Aggression is Retaliation: Stand-your-Ground Laws and the Liberalizing of Self-Defense, Volvo 43 University of Toledo Law Review 417 (2012). Supporters of the castle doctrine-type laws recognize that there are times when the government's monopoly on violence must be set aside to allow law-abiding citizens to protect themselves when time is limited. Benjamin Levin, A Defensible Defense? : Reexamining Castle Doctrine Statues Volvo 47 Harvard Journal on Legislation 540 (2010).When an aggressor poses an immediate threat, the defender's preservation of self should take precedence over the aggressor's culpability. ‘d, at 539. Others like Jim Brady from The Brady Campaign believe that these laws are â€Å"ushering in a violent new era where civilians have more freedom to use deadly force than even the police. † Samara, Criminal Law, at 174 (2014). They also claim that these laws allow those who have an â€Å"itchy trigger finger† to simply claim that they were in fear and therefore justified in using deadly force. ‘d, at 174.To make things even more complex, states have their own versions of the law that are still in flux and fairly open to interpretation by courts?it is not always straightforward when someone is legally entitled to use deadly force to protect themselves. Levin, A Defensible Defense 534-536 (2010). What does â€Å"reasonable fear† even mean? Unfortunately, this is not easy to answer. Ohio's depiction of reasonable fear is somewhat helpful: the actor using deadly force must have a bona fide belief that he/she was in imminent danger f death or great bodily harm and the only means of escape was to use deadly force in retaliation.Wyatt Holiday, The Answer to Criminal Aggression is Retaliation: Stand- Your-Ground Laws and the Liberalizing of Self-Defense, Volvo 43 University of Toledo Law Review 425 (2012). The â€Å"honest† and â€Å"reasonable† requirements make it seem like a hybrid objective/sub]active requirement, but it's still a subjective standard as highlighted by the Ohio Supreme Court. ‘d, at 424. This court's instructions on this standard recommended that to determine whether a defendant had reasonable fear of imminent danger: †¦ U must put yourself in the position of the Defendant, with her characteristics, knowledge, or lack of knowledge, and under the same circumstances and conditions that surrounded the Defendant at the time. You must consider the conduct of [the victim] and determine if such acts and words caused the Def endant to reasonably and honestly believe that she was about to be killed or â€Å"reasonable fear† is so subjective, because of the wide range of situations people find themselves in; it doesn't seem feasible to create an objective test that measures such a subjective and virtually immeasurable emotion such as fear.Keep in mind how the law mentions that the only means of escape is the use of deadly force. Even though â€Å"reasonable fear† is such a subjective concept, it still has an impact in the courtroom compared to how self-defense laws used to be written. Before Stand- Your-Ground laws came about, defendants had the burden to show that their life and limb was actually in danger. Light at 234 (2012). Now, in certain Jurisdictions, citizens have to only prove that they had a â€Å"reasonable fear† that their life and limb were at jeopardy, and that they believed that deadly force was immediately necessary to peel this threat. D, at 234. This amounts to a sm aller burden of proof on the defendant, which is more challenging for the prosecution because disproving facts is a lot easier than disproving perceptions. ‘d, at 234. Is this a fair balance? The â€Å"reasonable fear† requirement is fair since it allows the state to make an inquiry into whether deadly force was used in a legitimate fashion without putting an excessive burden on citizens to Justify their use of force that can be easily defeated by prosecuting attorneys. What about the â€Å"duty to retreat? Should it still play a part n today's laws? Eric Del Bozo, Retreat Does Not Equal Surrender: Defensive Deadly Force in Dwellings After People v. Keen, Volvo 82 SST. John's Law Review 360-381 (2008) points out that the duty to retreat should still play a part in these self-defense laws, especially when retreat is a safe and reasonable option that could save a lot of violence. He concedes, however, that â€Å"one need not calmly evaluate exit strategies when faced wi th a pressing danger, for detached reflection cannot be demanded in the presence of an uplifted knife. ‘d, at 364. Also, it isn't reasonable to focus in midnight at whether the defendant could have safely retreated, which is a reason why â€Å"reasonable fear† is appropriate in order to focus on what the person knew at the time. ‘d, at 364. The way retreat is treated as an option and the thoughts of the person using force varies among states and even Jurisdictions within those states; some deemphasize the need to retreat while others focus more on the Justification of force and options for retreat. ‘d, at 363-364.In 2006 alone though, between 10 and 15 states repealed their laws that required persons to consider retreat before using defensive deadly force. D, at 377. This might not bode well in a case where a person shoots his neighbor over an argument over trash bins; Del Bozo suggests that stories making headlines tend to be neighbors and acquaintances fre ely assaulting each other rather than repelling home invasions. ‘d, at 377. However, he doesn't offer any statistics or empirical evidence that there is a trend in unjustifiable killings due to these laws.Nonetheless, the duty to retreat still has merit to allow the whole situation to be analyzed in court, and hold people accountable who may engage in â€Å"senseless† killings. ‘d, at 378. The prosecution should be able to show that retreat was indeed a viable option out of a respect for human life; there must be a balance between protecting the safety of both the assailant and the victim, but retreat should be looked at with the burden being on the non-aggressor. ‘d, at 380. There are five different concerns that law enforcement authorities have concerning these new and more aggressive self-defense laws.One unintended consequence could be police officers since citizens Just have to claim that they have â€Å"reasonable fear† in order to use deadly fo rce. ‘d, at 175. On the other hand, Florist's statute contains a revision which holds that citizens are not Justified in using deadly force against law enforcement officers as long as they are acting in an official capacity, have identified themselves as a police officer, or the person using force should have â€Å"reasonably' known it was a law enforcement officer. D, at 173. Indiana struggled with this unintended consequence, but actually ended up ruling that citizens cannot reasonably use deadly force against law enforcement officers. Jon Laramie, Indiana Constitutional Development: Debtors, Placements, and the Castle Doctrine, Volvo. 45 Indiana Law Review, 1049-1051 (2012). In Barnes v. Tate, 946 N. E. Ad 572 (2011), the Indiana Supreme Court stated that â€Å"public policy disavows recognizing a common law right to forcibly resist unlawful police entry into one's home. ‘d, at 1050. They also recognized that it isn't easy for citizens to recognize when a given poli ce entry is lawful or not, that injury is high due to upgrades in police equipment, and citizens have other remedies for unlawful entries (civil litigation, police disciplinary hearings, exclusionary rule, etc. ) ‘d, at 1050. The court did concede that a person has the right to â€Å"reasonably resist† an unlawful entry, but this doesn't amount to a defense of eatery or other violent acts against law enforcement. D, at 1051. The court also claimed that most other states have followed suite in this decision in the interest of law enforcement safety. ‘d, at 1050. Another concern is that the interpretation of these castle-type laws is in its infancy. Some believe that law enforcement training will constantly have to adapt to changing views on these laws, and that it will be almost impossible for police officers to determine whether these new laws are being invoked [applied properly. Supra, at 176.The next concern is that instead of Just avian to determine whether dan ger was imminent or there was a duty to retreat in a public place, police officers will now have to anticipate more â€Å"self-defense† claims. ‘d, at 176. This will increase the investigative burdens on officers, and proving a negative is difficult when the evidence is â€Å"in the hands of the defendant. † ‘d, at 176. This concern is exacerbated by the fact that law enforcement agencies are often understaffed and are already overworked. ‘d, at 176.Furthermore, police authorities are worried that these new laws will lead to a sort of apathy and degradation of vigilance among officers. D, at 176. They may get used to seeing â€Å"self- defense† claims and may dig deep enough into every claim as these new castle-type laws call for, especially if both parties have criminal records. ‘d, at 176. The last concern of law enforcement on castle-type laws are that citizens (a) will not be adequately aware of their right to use force in self-defens e and (b) will be considered a deterrence by criminals who may now view them as more able to defend themselves. D, at 176. Overall, people might feel safer because they are given more latitude to protect themselves, but they may not since they might be worried about there with â€Å"itchy trigger fingers. † ‘d, at 177. Also, there is a lack of empirical evidence that shows that the positive impacts outweigh the positive negative impacts. ‘d, at 177. However, the ironic part is that we will not know if these types of laws will â€Å"work† unless we employ them uniformly on a generalize sample size (many states/ jurisdictions) and then evaluate them over time using sound research methods. Ensure that citizens are able to defend themselves when they legitimately need to. Nobody said it would come without any consequences at all. A legal issue with hose castle doctrine-type laws according to Elizabeth Mega, Deadly Combinations: How Self-Defense Laws Pairing Imm unity with a Presumption of Fear Allows Criminals to â€Å"Get Away with Murder,† Volvo 34 American Journal of Trial Advocacy 105-134 (2010), is that reasonable fear and immunity can combine to create a virtual bar on prosecution for self-defense cases involving an individual's â€Å"castle. The state of Florida provides both a presumptive reasonable fear clause and an immunity clause; reasonable fear by itself can be rebutted by the prosecution at a later time, but immunity won't ever allow that to happen. D, at 108. Mega contends that such an â€Å"irrefutable conclusion† is unconstitutional and puts law enforcement in an awkward position to determine immunity. ‘d, at 108. Also, once immunity is granted it cannot be withdrawn and someone who was entitled to immunity cannot fight for it later on. ‘d, at 109.However, if someone is outside of their home they have to prove the reasonableness of their use of force before being qualified for immunity?this is p resumed in cases involving the home and motor vehicles though. ‘d, at 113.. Furthermore, at least in situations located at the defender's home, Florist's law sakes it impossible to make the determination that the defender's use of force was unlawful. ‘d, at 118. The law contains a provision that states that reasonable fear can be â€Å"presumed† when a person uses deadly force in the protection of their home?the police cannot make a probable cause determination. D, at 119. Florist's law puts law enforcement in a situation where they have to make determinations on the spot that prosecutors would normally make: they have to make determinations of immunity and attempt to disprove a presumption rather than establish a case. ‘d, at 120. Law enforcement normally investigate â€Å"unlawful† acts, but Florist's law tells officers to presume that acts of violence within the home are â€Å"lawful. † ‘d, at 121 . As for how to fix these statutory is sues, Mega contends that they are beyond fixing with Just guidelines and require rewording.Police could become so dependent on the guidelines that they may fail to see the big picture, defendants could end up in Jail trying to assert immunity, law enforcement may not understand the guidelines, and law enforcement have to engage in prosecutorial duties that they were not trained to do. D, at 130. Although â€Å"immunity' certain presents more problems, what about â€Å"reasonable fear† itself? Mega claims that the previous duty to retreat laws still allowed someone to use force, but only when there is no safe method of retreat. ‘d, at 115.In this way, common law held the respect for life on a higher level than the right to possess and use a gun. ‘d, at 115. However, with the new castle-type laws individuals can now react violently with little incentive to try and diffuse the situation by safely retreating. ‘d, at 115. The duty to retreat makes someone think twice about sing force instead of harming someone before considering whether an actual threat exists. ‘d, at 116. With these new Stand Your Ground and castle-type laws, individuals are authorized to act violently in the face of a â€Å"perceived† threat, which is very subjective and open to interpretation. D, at 129. In Florida, however, the law allows the state to prosecute individuals when probable cause is established that the force used was unlawful, at least outside of one's home. ‘d, at 130. This type of provision who use deadly force in a senseless or reckless manner without giving reasonable Hough into whether they're really facing impending danger. As mentioned earlier though, in the heat of the moment people's perceptions and their ability amount to think clearly in these intense situations will vary. How does â€Å"reasonable fear† play out in the context of a Jury trial?Stay Lee Burns, Demonstrating â€Å"Reasonable Fear† at Trial: Is it Science or Junk Science? Department of Sociology, Loyola Martyrdom University, Los Angles, CA 107-131 (2008) examined one murder trial in depth that involved reasonable fear. In this case, the Maddened brothers were charged and invoiced of first degree murder for shot-gunning their parents in their own home in August 1989. ‘d, at 109. During the trial, they confessed to parricide but claimed they held reasonable fear because of their prior sexual abuse by their father and acted in self-defense Justification defense). D, at 110. The Jury deadlocked at the first trial, which indicates the ambiguousness that reasonable fear can have at trial. ‘d, at 129. The defense proposed expert testimony that would show that the abuse the defendants underwent altered their mental state at the time of the killings because heir susceptibility to fear and perception of imminent danger were heightened. ‘d, at 112. U Timely, the Judge did not allow expert testimony pertaining to what h appened in the Maddened brothers' situation, but could attempt to generalize prior research on fear perception.Although there has been research on the limbic system, the part of the brain that processes fear, for the lastly years the results are far from conclusive and there is no test available that can show what the Maddened brothers' fear levels were at the time of the killing or whether their susceptibility had indeed been heightened because of trauma. ‘d, at 118- 127. Social science is only able to provide statistics and the likelihood that the Maddened brothers would act a certain way in a given situation. ‘d, at 122.There is a blood test available that can give insight into what a person's level of fear is, but the sample would have to be taken right at the moment of the crime (not feasible). ‘d, at 124. This case illustrates the tension between social science and the Judicial system that requires facts to relate to the particular case at hand. ‘d, at 128. It came down to what the Jury felt was â€Å"reasonable fear,† and how much they thought the expert testimony applied to the Maddened ease?it's no surprise that the Jury ended up deadlocked. D, at 128-129. In conclusion, the â€Å"reasonable fear† requirement is fair since it allows the state to make an inquiry into whether deadly force was used in a legitimate fashion without putting an excessive burden on citizens and giving too much of an advantage to prosecuting attorneys. Although â€Å"duty to retreat† shouldn't be strictly imposed or evaluated in hindsight, it is still applicable in situations where violence could have been easily avoided by practically walking away.While there are legitimate concerns such as Alice safety in no-knock searches with these more aggressive self-defense laws, the sad fact remains that little empirical evidence is out to date that shows any negative or positive trends associated with these laws. In addition, these laws and their interpretation are still in their infancy and are written differently among the states and their Jurisdictions. A legal issue that may not be empirically measurable, however, is how reasonable fear can be paired with immunity to create a bar on prosecution of those defending their home perhaps too readily.These people should burden of proof that can easily be discredited. Additionally, this presumption would leave police officers with the difficult task of making determinations on the spot that would normally be left to prosecuting attorneys. As for immunity, citizens should be granted immunity from civil litigation if their use of deadly force was Justified; they shouldn't have to be mired with legal action from the aggressor after they've already been in court.The Maddened case illustrates the limitations of science to prove reasonable fear in a court setting, and can only offer potential generalizations and statistics. Bottom line, â€Å"reasonable fear† ends up get ting determined by Juries, which ay not be that easy or uniform. Overall, the new and more aggressive self-defense laws are good for public policy with the exception of the presumption of reasonable fear in situations involving defending one's home.These laws necessarily give citizens more latitude in defending themselves without an undue burden of having to sit there and think about whether they should retreat or fear of future civil litigation. However, those who are inclined to resort to violence in the face of any perceived threat need to justify their actions in order to prevent senseless killings. They should only have to how that they had reasonable fear without a heavy burden of proof that prosecutors can easily defeat, which could be the beyond a reasonable doubt standard.An understandable concern is that these new laws will put a further burden on an already stressed and backlogged criminal Justice system, but we cannot put police officers in a position to try to make thes e determinations on the spot. We also cannot allow potential senseless killings to go unchallenged. Omitting the presumption clause and putting a little more emphasis on retreat options can better balance the defender's right of safety and the aggressor's culpability.

Ideologies during the Nineteenth Century essays

Ideologies during the Nineteenth Century essays Liberalism is the political philosophy emphasizing the value of individual liberty and the role of the state in protecting the rights of its citizens. The idea of liberalism meant specific individual freedoms such as: freedom of press, freedom on speech, freedom of assembly, and freedom from arbitrary arrest. By the early 19th century France with it's Constitutional Charter and Britain with it's Parliament and historic rights of English men and women were the only two nations that had implemented liberal programs. Yet even in those two countries liberalism and not been implemented to its fullest capacity. Although still impacting the mind set of many, liberalism had lost some of its luster during the early 19th century because of new ideologies that had sprung up which supplement for some of liberalism shortfalls. Many revolutionaries criticized the idea of a complete laissez faire economy with no governmental restrictions. Also in the early nineteenth century liberal political ideal s became closely associated with narrow class interest and increasingly with the middle class. Many intellectuals and foes of liberalism thought that liberalism did not go far enough. Nationalism is the ideology based on the premise that the individual's loyalty and devotion to the nation-state surpasses other individual or group interests. Nationalism was the second radical idea in the years after 1815. Nationalism has usually evolved from real or imagined cultural unity, mostly manifesting itself through the commonality of language, religion, history, or territory. Nationalists have tired to use these common bonds to unit together peoples to fight for or support a common goal. And because of the cultural mixing pot in central Europe, nationalism became a powerful ideology. The early nationalist believed that every nation, like every citizen had the right to exist in freedom. However these overlapping beliefs created ambiguity because its main thrust was...

Chemistry Abbreviations Starting with the Letter R

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Eric Schlosser's 1994 article Reefer Madness essays Eric Schlosser's 1994 article "Reefer Madness" outlines the history and ideology behind marijuana criminalization laws. The author attempts to point out the flaws in America's anti-drug policies by criticizing heavy- handed sentencing and the lack of scientific evidence against the dangers of marijuana use. Tracing the origins of marijuana cultivation in the United States, Schlosser shows that pot was not always the "evil weed" that many assume it is; it was once used in an innocuous manner by the Founding Fathers as a sturdy fiber and even as legal tender. What began the campaign against cannabis sativa was actually rooted in racism and class discrimination, according to Schlosser. Citing evidence that Mexican migrant farm laborers, black New Orleans jazz musicians, and underground groups used marijuana recreationally, the author connects anti-marijuana laws to the era of the Great Depression. Consequently, drug laws began politically charged and remain so until this day. Ronald Reagan's "War on Drugs" further exacerbated the problem of overcrowding prisons with nonviolent drug offenders, many of whom receive stricter sentences than murderers or rapists. The purpose of Schlosser's article is to point out the problems inherent in America's strict drug laws. The article is divided into seven main sections. The first is a comprehensive introduction and the remaining six deal with specific historical and geographical issues relevant to the discussion of the topic. The introductory section of "Reefer madness" grabs the reader's attention though the story of Mark Young, who was sentenced to life in prison without parole for being a "middleman." Young was not found in possession of the plant; he simply acted as a go-between for the seller and the buyer. Schlosser wonders how a society comes to slap stiffer sentences on a man such as Young while those who commit violent crimes f...